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<title>Polyester</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Polyester</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the 1981 motion picture, see <a href="Polyester_(film)" title="Polyester (film)">Polyester (film)</a>.</div>

<p><b>Polyester</b> is a category of <a href="Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a> that contain one or two <a href="Ester" title="Ester">ester</a> linkages in every repeat unit of their main chain.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a specific <a href="Material" title="Material">material</a>, it most commonly refers to a type called <a href="Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">polyethylene terephthalate</a> (PET). Polyesters include some naturally occurring chemicals, such as those found in <a href="Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> and <a href="Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>. Natural polyesters and a few synthetic ones are <a href="Biodegradable" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodegradable">biodegradable</a>, but most synthetic polyesters are not. Synthetic polyesters are used extensively in clothing.

</p><p>Polyester fibers are sometimes spun together with natural fibers to produce a <a href="Cloth" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloth">cloth</a> with blended properties. <a href="Cotton" title="Cotton">Cotton</a>-polyester blends can be strong, wrinkle- and tear-resistant, and reduce shrinking. <a href="Synthetic_fiber" title="Synthetic fiber">Synthetic fibers</a> using polyester have high water, wind, and environmental resistance compared to plant-derived fibers. They are less <a href="Fireproofing" title="Fireproofing">fire-resistant</a> and can melt when ignited.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Liquid crystalline polyesters are among the first industrially used <a href="Liquid_crystal_polymer" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid crystal polymer">liquid crystal polymers</a>. They are used for their mechanical properties and heat-resistance. These traits are also important in their application as an abradable seal in jet engines.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div>

<p>Polyesters can contain one ester linkage per repeat unit of the polymer, as in <a href="Polyhydroxyalkanoate" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyhydroxyalkanoate">polyhydroxyalkanoates</a> like <a href="Polylactic_acid" title="Polylactic acid">polylactic acid</a>, or they may have two ester linkages per repeat unit, as in <a href="Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">polyethylene terephthalate</a> (PET).

</p><p>Polyesters are one of the most economically important classes of polymers, driven especially by PET, which is counted among the commodity plastics; in 2019 around 30.5 million metric tons were produced worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a great variety of structures and properties in the polyester family, based on the varying nature of the R group (see first figure with blue ester group).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural">Natural</h3></div>

<p>Polyesters occurring in nature include the <a href="Cutin" title="Cutin">cutin</a> component of <a href="Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">plant cuticles</a>, which consists of <a href="Omega_hydroxy_acid" title="Omega hydroxy acid">omega hydroxy acids</a> and their derivatives, interlinked via <a href="Ester" title="Ester">ester</a> bonds, forming polyester polymers of indeterminate size. Polyesters are also produced by <a href="Bee" title="Bee">bees</a> in the genus <i><a href="Colletes" title="Colletes">Colletes</a></i>, which secrete a <a href="Cellophane" title="Cellophane">cellophane</a>-like polyester lining for their underground brood cells<sup id="cite_ref-hef_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hef-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> earning them the nickname "polyester bees".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Synthetic">Synthetic</h3></div>

<p>The family of synthetic polyesters comprises<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li>Linear aliphatic high molecular weight polyesters (<i>M<sub>n</sub></i> >10,000) are low-melting (m. p. 40 – 80 °C) semicrystalline polymers and exhibit relatively poor mechanical properties. Their inherent degradability, resulting from their hydrolytic instability, makes them suitable for applications where a possible environmental impact is a concern, e.g. packaging, disposable items or agricultural mulch films<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>⁠ or in biomedical and pharmaceutical applications.<sup id="cite_ref-Park_2012_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Park_2012-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Aliphatic linear low-molar-mass (<i>M<sub>n</sub></i> < 10,000) hydroxy-terminated polyesters are used as macromonomers for the production of polyurethanes.</li>

<li>hyperbranched polyesters are used as rheology modifiers in thermoplastics or as crosslinkers in coatings<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> due to their particularly low viscosity, good solubility and high functionality<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Aliphatic–aromatic polyesters, including <a href="Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET)</a> and poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT), poly(hexamethylene terephthalate)(PHT), poly(propylene terephthalate) <a href="Sorona" title="Sorona">(PTT, Sorona)</a>, etc. are high-melting semicrystalline materials (m. p. 160–280 °C) that and have benefited from engineering thermoplastics, fibers and films.</li>

<li>Wholly aromatic linear copolyesters present superior mechanical properties and heat resistance and are used in a number of high-performance applications.</li>

<li><a href="Polyester_resin#Unsaturated_polyester" title="Polyester resin">Unsaturated polyesters</a> are produced from multifunctional alcohols and unsaturated dibasic acids and are cross-linked thereafter; they are used as matrices in composite materials. Alkyd resins are made from polyfunctional alcohols and fatty acids and are used widely in the coating and composite industries as they can be cross-linked in the presence of oxygen. Also <a href="Rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber">rubber</a>-like polyesters exist, called thermoplastic polyester elastomers (ester TPEs). <a href="Polyester_resin" title="Polyester resin">Unsaturated polyesters</a> (UPR) are thermosetting <a href="Resin" title="Resin">resins</a>. They are used in the liquid state as <a href="Casting" title="Casting">casting</a> materials, in <a href="Sheet_molding_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheet molding compound">sheet molding compounds</a>, as <a href="Fiberglass" title="Fiberglass">fiberglass</a> laminating resins and in non-metallic auto-body fillers. They are also used as the <a href="Thermoset_polymer_matrix" title="Thermoset polymer matrix">thermoset polymer matrix</a> in <a href="Pre-preg" title="Pre-preg">pre-pregs</a>. Fiberglass-reinforced unsaturated polyesters find wide application in bodies of yachts and as body parts of cars.</li></ul>

<p>Depending on the chemical structure, polyester can be a <a href="Thermoplastic" title="Thermoplastic">thermoplastic</a> or <a href="Thermoset" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermoset">thermoset</a>. There are also <a href="Polyester_resin" title="Polyester resin">polyester resins</a> cured by hardeners; however, the most common polyesters are thermoplastics.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The OH group is reacted with an <a href="Isocyanate" title="Isocyanate">Isocyanate</a> functional compound in a 2 component system producing coatings which may optionally be pigmented. Polyesters as thermoplastics may change shape after the application of heat. While combustible at high temperatures, polyesters tend to shrink away from flames and self-extinguish upon ignition. Polyester fibers have high <a href="Tenacity_(textile_strength)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenacity (textile strength)">tenacity</a> and <a href="Young's_modulus" title="Young's modulus">E-modulus</a> as well as low water absorption and minimal <a href="Shrinkage_(fabric)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrinkage (fabric)">shrinkage</a> in comparison with other industrial fibers.

</p><p>Increasing the aromatic parts of polyesters increases their <a href="Glass_transition_temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass transition temperature">glass transition temperature</a>, melting temperature, <a href="Thermostability" title="Thermostability">thermostability</a>, chemical stability, and solvent resistance.

</p><p>Polyesters can also be <a href="Telechelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Telechelic">telechelic</a> <a href="Oligomer" title="Oligomer">oligomers</a> like the polycaprolactone diol (PCL) and the polyethylene adipate diol (PEA). They are then used as <a href="Prepolymer" title="Prepolymer">prepolymers</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aliphatic_vs._aromatic_polymers">Aliphatic <i>vs.</i> aromatic polymers</h3></div>

<p>Thermally stable polymers, which generally have a high proportion of <a href="Aromaticity" title="Aromaticity">aromatic structures</a>, are also called <a href="High-performance_plastics" title="High-performance plastics">high-performance plastics</a>. This application-oriented classification compares such polymers with <a href="Engineering_plastic" title="Engineering plastic">engineering plastics</a> and <a href="Commodity_plastics" title="Commodity plastics">commodity plastics</a>. The continuous service temperature of high-performance plastics is generally stated as being higher than 150 °C,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas engineering plastics (such as polyamide or polycarbonate) are often defined as thermoplastics that retain their properties above 100 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>⁠ Commodity plastics (such as polyethylene or polypropylene) have in this respect even greater limitations, but they are manufactured in great amounts at low cost.

</p><p>Poly(ester <a href="Imide" title="Imide">imides</a>) contain an aromatic imide group in the repeat unit, the imide-based polymers have a high proportion of aromatic structures in the main chain and belong to the class of thermally stable polymers. Such polymers contain structures that impart high melting temperatures, resistance to oxidative degradation and stability to radiation and chemical reagents. Among the thermally stable polymers with commercial relevance are <a href="Polyimide" title="Polyimide">polyimides</a>, <a href="Polysulfone" title="Polysulfone">polysulfones</a>, <a href="Polyetherketones" title="Polyetherketones">polyetherketones</a>, and <a href="Polybenzimidazoles" class="mw-redirect" title="Polybenzimidazoles">polybenzimidazoles</a>. Of these, polyimides are most widely applied.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The polymers' structures result also in poor processing characteristics, in particular a high melting point and low solubility. The named properties are in particular based on a high percentage of aromatic carbons in the polymer backbone which produces a certain stiffness.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>⁠ Approaches for an improvement of processability include the incorporation of flexible spacers into the backbone, the attachment of stable pendent groups or the incorporation of non-symmetrical structures.⁠ Flexible spacers include, for example, ether or hexafluoroisopropylidene, carbonyl or aliphatic groups like isopropylidene; these groups allow bond rotation between aromatic rings. Less symmetrical structures, for example, based on <i>meta</i>- or <i>ortho</i>-linked monomers, introduce structural disorder, decreasing the crystallinity.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The generally poor processability of aromatic polymers (for example, a high melting point and a low solubility) also limits the available options for synthesis and may require strong electron-donating co-solvents like HFIP or TFA for analysis (e. g. <a href="Proton_NMR_Spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton NMR Spectroscopy"><sup>1</sup>H NMR spectroscopy</a>) which themselves can introduce further practical limitations.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses_and_applications">Uses and applications</h2></div>

<p>Fabrics <a href="Woven_fabric" title="Woven fabric">woven</a> or <a href="Knitted" class="mw-redirect" title="Knitted">knitted</a> from polyester thread or yarn are used extensively in apparel and home furnishings, from shirts and pants to jackets and hats, bed sheets, blankets, upholstered furniture and computer mouse mats. Industrial polyester fibers, yarns and ropes are used in car tire reinforcements, <a href="Fabrics" class="mw-redirect" title="Fabrics">fabrics</a> for conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and plastic reinforcements with high-energy absorption. Polyester fiber is used as cushioning and insulating material in pillows, comforters, stuffed animals and characters, and upholstery padding. Polyester fabrics are highly stain-resistant since polyester is a hydrophobic material, and therefore has difficulty absorbing liquids. The only class of dyes which can be used to alter the color of polyester fabric are what are known as <a href="Disperse_dye" title="Disperse dye">disperse dyes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Aatcc_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aatcc-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Polyesters are also used to make bottles, films, <a href="Tarpaulin" title="Tarpaulin">tarpaulin</a>, <a href="Sails" class="mw-redirect" title="Sails">sails</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="Dacron" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacron">Dacron</a>), canoes, <a href="Liquid_crystal_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid crystal display">liquid crystal displays</a>, <a href="Hologram" class="mw-redirect" title="Hologram">holograms</a>, <a href="Filter_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Filter (chemistry)">filters</a>, <a href="Dielectric" title="Dielectric">dielectric</a> film for <a href="Capacitor" title="Capacitor">capacitors</a>, <a href="Electrical_insulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical insulation">film insulation</a> for <a href="Wire" title="Wire">wire</a> and <a href="Insulating_tape" class="mw-redirect" title="Insulating tape">insulating tapes</a>. Polyesters are widely used as a finish on high-quality wood products such as <a href="Guitar" title="Guitar">guitars</a>, <a href="Piano" title="Piano">pianos</a>, and vehicle/yacht interiors. <a href="Thixotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Thixotropic">Thixotropic</a> properties of spray-applicable polyesters make them ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood grain, with a high-build film thickness per coat.

It can be used for fashionable dresses, but it is most admired for its ability to resist wrinkling and shrinking while washing the product. Its toughness makes it a frequent choice for children's wear. Polyester is often blended with other fibres like cotton to get the desirable properties of both materials.

Cured polyesters can be sanded and polished to a high-gloss, durable finish.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2></div>

<p>Polyester is typically produced through a process known as polymerization. For polyethylene terephthalate (PET), the production process involves the chemical reaction between two primary raw materials: purified terephthalic acid (PTA) or dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) and monoethylene glycol (MEG).

</p><p>The production process includes the following steps:

</p>

<ol><li><b>Polycondensation Reaction</b>: The reaction between PTA or DMT and MEG creates polyester polymer chains through a process called polycondensation. This reaction takes place at high temperatures and involves the removal of water or methanol byproducts.</li>

<li><b>Extrusion</b>: Once the polymerization is complete, the molten polyester is extruded into long strands. These strands are then cooled and cut into small pellets or chips.</li>

<li><b>Spinning</b>: To form fibers, these polyester chips are melted and extruded through spinnerets, forming fine strands of polyester filament. These filaments can be processed further to create continuous fibers, which are then woven into textiles.</li>

<li><b>Recycling</b>: The production of polyester has evolved to include the recycling of PET, especially from post-consumer plastic bottles. Recycled PET <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://verive.eu/whats-rpet-and-why-do-we-use-it-for-food-packaging/#:~:text=What%20is%20rPET%3F,bottles%20are%20made%20from%20PET.">(rPET)</a> is increasingly being used in textile production, reducing the environmental impact of polyester manufacturing.</li></ol>

<p><a href="Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">Polyethylene terephthalate</a>, the polyester with the greatest market share, is a synthetic polymer made of <a href="Purified_terephthalic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Purified terephthalic acid">purified terephthalic acid</a> (PTA) or its dimethyl ester <a href="Dimethyl_terephthalate" title="Dimethyl terephthalate">dimethyl terephthalate</a> (DMT) and <a href="Monoethylene_glycol" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoethylene glycol">monoethylene glycol</a> (MEG). With 18% market share of all plastic materials produced, it ranges third after <a href="Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">polyethylene</a> (33.5%) and <a href="Polypropylene" title="Polypropylene">polypropylene</a> (19.5%) and is counted as <a href="Commodity_plastics" title="Commodity plastics">commodity plastic</a>.

</p><p>There are several reasons for the importance of polyethylene terephthalate:

</p>

<ul><li>The relatively easy accessible raw materials PTA or DMT and MEG</li>

<li>The very well understood and described simple chemical process of its synthesis</li>

<li>The low toxicity level of all raw materials and side products during production and processing</li>

<li>The possibility to produce PET in a closed loop at low emissions to the environment</li>

<li>The outstanding mechanical and chemical properties</li>

<li>The recyclability</li>

<li>The wide variety of intermediate and final products.</li></ul>

<p>In the following table, the estimated world polyester production is shown. Main applications are <a href="Textile" title="Textile">textile</a> polyester, bottle polyester resin, film polyester mainly for <a href="Packaging" title="Packaging">packaging</a> and specialty polyesters for engineering plastics.

</p>

<caption>World polyester production by year

</caption>

<th>Product type

</th>

<th>2002 (million tonnes/year)

</th>

<th>2008 (million tonnes/year)

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>Textile-PET

</td>

<td>20

</td>

<td>39

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Resin, bottle/A-PET

</td>

<td>9

</td>

<td>16

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Film-PET

</td>

<td>1.2

</td>

<td>1.5

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Special polyester

</td>

<td>1

</td>

<td>2.5

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Total

</th>

<th>31.2

</th>

<th>59

</th></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polyester_processing">Polyester processing</h3></div>

<p>After the first stage of polymer production in the melt phase, the product stream divides into two different application areas which are mainly <a href="Textile" title="Textile">textile</a> applications and packaging applications. In the following table, the main applications of textile and packaging of polyester are listed.

</p>

<caption>Textile and packaging polyester application list (melt or pellet)

</caption>

<th>Textile

</th>

<th>Packaging

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Staple_(textiles)" title="Staple (textiles)">Staple fiber</a> (PSF)

</td>

<td>Bottles for CSD, water, beer, juice, detergents, etc.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Filaments POY, DTY, FDY

</td>

<td>A-PET film

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Technical yarn and tire cord

</td>

<td>Thermoforming

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Non-woven and spunbond

</td>

<td>biaxial-oriented film (BO-PET)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Mono-filament

</td>

<td>Strapping

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>Abbreviations:

</p>

<dd>Polyester-staple fiber</dd>

<dd>Partially oriented yarn</dd>

<dd>Drawn textured yarn</dd>

<dd>Fully drawn yarn</dd>

<dd>Carbonated soft drink</dd>

<dd>Amorphous polyethylene terephthalate film</dd>

<dd>Biaxial-oriented polyethylene terephthalate film</dd></dl>

<p>A comparable small market segment (much less than 1 million tonnes/year) of polyester is used to produce engineering plastics and <a href="Masterbatch" title="Masterbatch">masterbatch</a>.

</p><p>In order to produce the polyester melt with a high efficiency, high-output processing steps like staple fiber (50–300 tonnes/day per spinning line) or POY /FDY (up to 600 tonnes/day split into about 10 spinning machines) are meanwhile more and more vertically integrated direct processes. This means the polymer melt is directly converted into the textile fibers or filaments without the common step of <a href="Pelletizing" title="Pelletizing">pelletizing</a>. We are talking about full <a href="Horizontal_integration" title="Horizontal integration">vertical integration</a> when polyester is produced at one site starting from crude oil or <a href="Distillation" title="Distillation">distillation</a> products in the chain oil → benzene → PX → PTA → PET melt → fiber/filament or bottle-grade resin. Such integrated processes are meanwhile established in more or less interrupted processes at one production site. Eastman Chemicals were the first to introduce the idea of closing the chain from PX to PET resin with their so-called INTEGREX process. The capacity of such vertically integrated production sites is >1000 tonnes/day and can easily reach 2500 tonnes/day.

</p><p>Besides the above-mentioned large processing units to produce staple fiber or yarns, there are ten thousands of small and very small processing plants, so that one can estimate that polyester is processed and recycled in more than 10 000 plants around the globe. This is without counting all the companies involved in the supply industry, beginning with engineering and processing machines and ending with special additives, stabilizers and colors. This is a gigantic industry complex and it is still growing by 4–8% per year, depending on the world region.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Synthesis">Synthesis</h2></div>

<p>Synthesis of polyesters is generally achieved by a polycondensation reaction. The general equation for the reaction of a diol with a diacid is:

</p>

<dl><dd>(n+1) R(OH)<sub>2</sub> + n R'(COOH)<sub>2</sub> → HO[ROOCR'COO]<sub>n</sub>ROH + 2n H<sub>2</sub>O.</dd></dl>

<p>Polyesters can be obtained by a wide range of reactions of which the most important are the reaction of acids and alcohols, alcoholysis and or acidolysis of low-molecular weight esters or the alcoholysis of acyl chlorides. The following figure gives an overview over such typical polycondensation reactions for polyester production. Furthermore, polyesters are accessible via ring-opening polymerization.

</p>

<p>Azeotrope esterification is a classical method for condensation. The water formed by the reaction of <a href="Alcohols" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohols">alcohol</a> and a <a href="Carboxylic_acid" title="Carboxylic acid">carboxylic acid</a> is continually removed by <a href="Azeotropic_distillation" title="Azeotropic distillation">azeotropic distillation</a>. When melting points of the monomers are sufficiently low, a polyester can be formed via direct esterification while removing the reaction water via vacuum.

</p>

<p>Direct bulk polyesterification at high temperatures (150 – 290 °C) is well-suited and used on the industrial scale for the production of aliphatic, unsaturated, and aromatic–aliphatic polyesters. Monomers containing <a href="Phenolic_acid" title="Phenolic acid">phenolic</a> or <a href="Tertiary_hydroxyl_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Tertiary hydroxyl groups">tertiary hydroxyl groups</a> exhibit a low reactivity with <a href="Carboxylic_acid" title="Carboxylic acid">carboxylic acids</a> and cannot be polymerized via direct acid alcohol-based polyesterification.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>⁠ In the case of PET production, however, the direct process has several advantages, in particular a higher reaction rate, a higher attainable molecular weight, the release of water instead of <a href="Methanol" title="Methanol">methanol</a> and lower storage costs of the acid when compared to the ester due to the lower weight.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alcoholic_transesterification">Alcoholic transesterification</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Transesterification" title="Transesterification">Transesterification</a></div>

<p><b>Transesterification</b>: An alcohol-terminated oligomer and an ester-terminated oligomer condense to form an ester linkage, with loss of an alcohol. R and R' are the two oligomer chains, R'' is a sacrificial unit such as a <a href="Methyl_group" title="Methyl group">methyl group</a> (<a href="Methanol" title="Methanol">methanol</a> is the byproduct of the esterification reaction).

</p><p>The term "<a href="Transesterification" title="Transesterification">transesterification</a>" is typically used to describe hydroxy–ester, carboxy–ester, and ester–ester exchange reactions. The hydroxy–ester exchange reaction possesses the highest rate of reaction and is used for the production of numerous aromatic–aliphatic and wholly aromatic polyesters.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The transesterification based synthesis is particularly useful for when high melting and poorly soluble dicarboxylic acids are used. In addition, alcohols as condensation product are more volatile and thereby easier to remove than water.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The high-temperature melt synthesis between bisphenol diacetates and aromatic dicarboxylic acids or in reverse between bisphenols and aromatic dicarboxylic acid diphenyl esters (carried out at 220 to 320 °C upon the release of acetic acid) is, besides the acyl chloride based synthesis, the preferred route to wholly aromatic polyesters.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acylation">Acylation</h3></div>

<p>In <a href="Acylation" title="Acylation">acylation</a>, the acid begins as an <a href="Acyl_chloride" title="Acyl chloride">acyl chloride</a>, and thus the polycondensation proceeds with emission of <a href="Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a> (HCl) instead of water.

</p><p>The reaction between diacyl chlorides and alcohols or phenolic compounds has been widely applied to polyester synthesis and has been subject of numerous reviews and book chapters.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>⁠<sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Duda_2005_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Duda_2005-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reaction is carried out at lower temperatures than the equilibrium methods; possible types are the high-temperature solution condensation, amine catalysed and interfacial reactions. In addition, the use of activating agents is counted as non-equilibrium method. The equilibrium constants for the acyl chloride-based condensation yielding yielding arylates and polyarylates are very high indeed and are reported to be 4.3 × 10<sup>3</sup> and 4.7 × 10<sup>3</sup>, respectively. This reaction is thus often referred to as a 'non-equilibrium' polyesterification. Even though the acyl chloride based synthesis is also subject of reports in the patent literature, it is unlikely that the reaction is utilized on the production scale.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The method is limited by the acid dichlorides' high cost, its sensitivity to hydrolysis and the occurrence of side reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid25473252_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid25473252-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The high temperature reaction (100 to > 300 °C) of an diacyl chloride with an dialcohol yields the polyester and hydrogen chloride. Under these relatively high temperatures the reaction proceeds rapidly without a catalyst:<sup id="cite_ref-:5_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>The conversion of the reaction can be followed by titration of the evolved hydrogen chloride. A wide variety of solvents has been described including chlorinated benzenes (e.g. dichlorobenzene), chlorinated naphthalenes or diphenyls, as well as non-chlorinated aromatics like terphenyls, benzophenones or dibenzylbenzenes. The reaction was also applied successfully to the preparation of highly crystalline and poorly soluble polymers which require high temperatures to be kept in solution (at least until a sufficiently high molecular weight was achieved).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid25473252_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid25473252-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In an interfacial acyl chloride-based reaction, the alcohol (generally in fact a phenol) is dissolved in the form of an alkoxide in an aqueous <a href="Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">sodium hydroxide</a> solution, the acyl chloride in an organic solvent immiscible with water such as <a href="Dichloromethane" title="Dichloromethane">dichloromethane</a>, <a href="Chlorobenzene" title="Chlorobenzene">chlorobenzene</a> or <a href="Hexane" title="Hexane">hexane</a>, the reaction occurs at the interface under high-speed agitation near room temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>The procedure is used for the production of polyarylates (polyesters based on bisphenols), <a href="Polyamide" title="Polyamide">polyamides</a>, <a href="Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">polycarbonates</a>, <a href="Poly(thiocarbonate)s" class="mw-redirect" title="Poly(thiocarbonate)s">poly(thiocarbonate)s</a>, and others. Since the molecular weight of the product obtained by a high-temperature synthesis can be seriously limited by side reactions, this problem is circumvented by the mild temperatures of interfacial polycondensation. The procedure is applied to the commercial production of bisphenol-A-based polyarylates like Unitika's U-Polymer.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Water could be in some cases replaced by an immiscible organic solvent (e. g. in the <a href="Adiponitrile" title="Adiponitrile">adiponitrile</a>/<a href="Carbon_tetrachloride" title="Carbon tetrachloride">carbon tetrachloride</a> system).<sup id="cite_ref-:5_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The procedure is of little use in the production of polyesters based on aliphatic diols which have higher <a href="PKa" class="mw-redirect" title="PKa">p<i>K</i><sub>a</sub></a> values than phenols and therefore do not form alcoholate ions in aqueous solutions.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The base catalysed reaction of an acyl chloride with an alcohol may also be carried out in one phase using tertiary amines (e. g. <a href="Triethylamine" title="Triethylamine">triethylamine</a>, Et<sub>3</sub>N) or <a href="Pyridine" title="Pyridine">pyridine</a> as acid acceptors:

</p>

<p>While acyl chloride-based polyesterifications proceed only very slowly at room temperature without a catalyst, the amine accelerates the reaction in several possible ways, although the mechanism is not fully understood.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it is known that <a href="Tertiary_amines" class="mw-redirect" title="Tertiary amines">tertiary amines</a> can cause <a href="Side_reaction" title="Side reaction">side-reactions</a> such as the formation of <a href="Ketene" title="Ketene">ketenes</a> and ketene dimers.⁠<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Silyl_method">Silyl method</h3></div>

<p>In this variant of the HCl method, the carboxylic acid chloride is converted with the <a href="Trimethyl_silyl_ether" class="mw-redirect" title="Trimethyl silyl ether">trimethyl silyl ether</a> of the alcohol component and production of trimethyl silyl chloride is obtained

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acetate_method_(esterification)">Acetate method (esterification)</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ring-opening_polymerization">Ring-opening polymerization</h3></div>

<p><a href="Aliphatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aliphatic">Aliphatic</a> polyesters can be assembled from <a href="Lactone" title="Lactone">lactones</a> under very mild conditions, catalyzed <a href="Anionic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anionic">anionically</a>, <a href="Cationic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cationic">cationically</a>, <a href="Metallorganic" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallorganic">metallorganically</a> or enzyme-based.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of catalytic methods for the copolymerization of epoxides with cyclic anhydrides have also recently been shown to provide a wide array of functionalized polyesters, both saturated and unsaturated. Ring-opening polymerization of lactones and lactides is also applied on the industrial scale.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid15584698_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15584698-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_methods">Other methods</h3></div>

<p>Numerous other reactions have been reported for the synthesis of selected polyesters, but are limited to laboratory-scale syntheses using specific conditions, for example using dicarboxylic acid salts and dialkyl halides or reactions between bisketenes and diols.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Instead of acyl chlorides, so-called activating agents can be used, such as <a href="Carbonyldiimidazole" title="Carbonyldiimidazole">1,1'-carbonyldiimidazole</a>, <a href="Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide">dicyclohexylcarbodiimide</a>, or <a href="Trifluoroacetic_anhydride" title="Trifluoroacetic anhydride">trifluoroacetic anhydride</a>. The polycondensation proceeds via the <i>in situ</i> conversion of the carboxylic acid into a more reactive intermediate while the activating agents are consumed. The reaction proceeds, for example, via an intermediate <i>N</i>-acylimidazole which reacts with catalytically acting sodium alkoxide:<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>The use of activating agents for the production of high-melting aromatic polyesters and polyamides under mild conditions has been subject of intensive academic research since the 1980s, but the reactions have not gained commercial acceptance as similar results can be achieved with cheaper reactants.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermodynamics_of_polycondensation_reactions">Thermodynamics of polycondensation reactions</h3></div>

<p>Polyesterifications are grouped by some authors<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> into two main categories: a) equilibrium polyesterifications (mainly alcohol-acid reaction, alcohol–ester and acid–ester interchange reactions, carried out in bulk at high temperatures), and b) non-equilibrium polyesterifications, using highly reactive monomers (for example acid chlorides or activated carboxylic acids, mostly carried out at lower temperatures in solution).

</p><p>The acid-alcohol based polyesterification is one example of an equilibrium reaction. The ratio between the polymer-forming ester group (-C(O)O-) and the condensation product water (H<sub>2</sub>O) against the acid-based (-C(O)OH) and alcohol-based (-OH) monomers is described by the equilibrium constant <i>K<sub>C</sub></i>.

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle K_{C}={\frac {[...{\ce {-C(O)O -}}...][{\ce {H2O}}]}{[{\ce {-C(O)OH}}][{\ce {-OH}}]}}}</annotation>

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</math></span><img src="./950760988a3cc1808cfa80ab840d5e3d13654d59.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:31.505ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle K_{C}={\frac {[...{\ce {-C(O)O -}}...][{\ce {H2O}}]}{[{\ce {-C(O)OH}}][{\ce {-OH}}]}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>

<p>The equilibrium constant of the acid-alcohol based polyesterification is typically <i>K<sub>C</sub></i> ≤ 10, what is not high enough to obtain high-molecular weight polymers (<i>DP<sub>n</sub></i> ≥ 100), as the number average degree of polymerization (<i>DP<sub>n</sub></i>) can be calculated from the equilibrium constant <i>K<sub>C</sub></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Duda_2005_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Duda_2005-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle DP_{n}~=~{\sqrt[{2}]{K_{C}}}+1}</annotation>

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</math></span><img src="./5299262cb76bec69c3a62c8dab17c3cc904da956.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:18.676ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle DP_{n}~=~{\sqrt[{2}]{K_{C}}}+1}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>

<p>In equilibrium reactions, it is therefore necessary to remove the condensation product continuously and efficiently from the reaction medium in order to drive the equilibrium towards polymer.<sup id="cite_ref-Duda_2005_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Duda_2005-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The condensation product is therefore removed at reduced pressure and high temperatures (150–320 °C, depending on the monomers) to prevent the back reaction.<sup id="cite_ref-Park_2012_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Park_2012-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the progress of the reaction, the concentration of active chain ends is decreasing and the viscosity of the melt or solution increasing. For an increase of the reaction rate, the reaction is carried out at high end group concentration (preferably in the bulk), promoted by the elevated temperatures.

</p><p>Equilibrium constants of magnitude <i>K<sub>C</sub></i> ≥ 10<sup>4</sup> are achieved when using reactive reactants (<a href="Acid_chlorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid chlorides">acid chlorides</a> or <a href="Acid_anhydrides" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid anhydrides">acid anhydrides</a>) or activating agents like <a href="Carbonyldiimidazole" title="Carbonyldiimidazole">1,1′-carbonyldiimidazole</a>. Using these reactants, molecular weights required for technical applications can be achieved even without active removal of the condensation product.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>In 1926, United States–based <a href="DuPont" title="DuPont">DuPont</a> began research on large molecules and synthetic fibers. This early research, headed by <a href="Wallace_Carothers" title="Wallace Carothers">Wallace Carothers</a>, centered on what became <a href="Nylon" title="Nylon">nylon</a>, which was one of the first synthetic fibers.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carothers was working for DuPont at the time. Carothers' research was incomplete and had not advanced to investigating the polyester formed from mixing ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. In 1928 polyester was patented in <a href="United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland">Britain</a> by the British <a href="General_Electric_Company" title="General Electric Company">General Electric Company</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carothers' project was revived by British scientists <a href="John_Rex_Whinfield" title="John Rex Whinfield">Whinfield</a> and Dickson, who patented <a href="Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">polyethylene terephthalate</a> (PET) or PETE in 1941. Polyethylene terephthalate forms the basis for synthetic fibers like <a href="Dacron" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacron">Dacron</a>, Terylene and polyester. In 1946, DuPont bought all legal rights from Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biodegradation_and_environmental_concerns">Biodegradation and environmental concerns</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Biodegradation" title="Biodegradation">Biodegradation</a></div>

<p>The <a href="Futuro" title="Futuro">Futuro</a> houses were made of <a href="Fibreglass" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibreglass">fibreglass</a>-reinforced polyester plastic; polyester-<a href="Polyurethane" title="Polyurethane">polyurethane</a>, and <a href="Poly(methyl_methacrylate)" title="Poly(methyl methacrylate)">poly(methyl methacrylate)</a>. One house was found to be degrading by <a href="Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> and <a href="Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cross-linking">Cross-linking</h3></div>

<p>Unsaturated polyesters are <a href="Thermosetting_polymer" title="Thermosetting polymer">thermosetting polymers</a>. They are generally <a href="Copolymer" title="Copolymer">copolymers</a> prepared by <a href="Polymerizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymerizing">polymerizing</a> one or more <a href="Diol" title="Diol">diols</a> with saturated and unsaturated <a href="Dicarboxylic_acid" title="Dicarboxylic acid">dicarboxylic acids</a> (<a href="Maleic_acid" title="Maleic acid">maleic acid</a>, <a href="Fumaric_acid" title="Fumaric acid">fumaric acid</a>, etc.) or their <a href="Anhydride" class="mw-redirect" title="Anhydride">anhydrides</a>. The double bond of unsaturated polyesters reacts with a <a href="Vinyl_group" title="Vinyl group">vinyl</a> <a href="Monomer" title="Monomer">monomer</a>, usually <a href="Styrene" title="Styrene">styrene</a>, resulting in a 3-D <a href="Cross-link" title="Cross-link">cross-linked</a> structure. This structure acts as a thermoset. The <a href="Exothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Exothermic">exothermic</a> cross-linking reaction is initiated through a <a href="Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalyst</a>, usually an <a href="Organic_peroxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic peroxide">organic peroxide</a> such as <a href="Methyl_ethyl_ketone_peroxide" title="Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide">methyl ethyl ketone peroxide</a> or <a href="Benzoyl_peroxide" title="Benzoyl peroxide">benzoyl peroxide</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pollution_of_freshwater_and_seawater_habitats">Pollution of freshwater and seawater habitats</h3></div>

<p>A team at Plymouth University in the UK spent 12 months analysing what happened when a number of synthetic materials were washed at different temperatures in domestic washing machines, using different combinations of detergents, to quantify the microfibres shed. They found that an average washing load of 6 kg could release an estimated 137,951 fibres from polyester-cotton blend fabric, 496,030 fibres from polyester and 728,789 from acrylic. Those fibers add to the general <a href="Microplastics" title="Microplastics">microplastics</a> <a href="Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">pollution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Safety">Safety</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fertility">Fertility</h3></div>

<p><a href="Ahmed_Shafik_(sexologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmed Shafik (sexologist)">Ahmed Shafik</a> was a sexologist who won a <a href="Ig_Nobel_Prize" title="Ig Nobel Prize">Ig Nobel Prize</a> on his research regarding how polyester can affect the fertility of rats,<sup id="cite_ref-Shafik_1993_pp._375–380_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shafik_1993_pp._375–380-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> dogs,<sup id="cite_ref-Shafik_1993_pp._367–370_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shafik_1993_pp._367–370-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and men.<sup id="cite_ref-Shafik_1992_pp._439–451_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shafik_1992_pp._439–451-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Bisphenol_A" title="Bisphenol A">Bisphenol A</a> which is a <a href="Endocrine_disruptor" title="Endocrine disruptor">endocrine disrupting chemical</a> may be used in the synthesis of polyester.<sup id="cite_ref-DAngelo_Meccariello_2021_p._2392_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DAngelo_Meccariello_2021_p._2392-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recycling">Recycling</h2></div>

<p><a href="Plastic_recycling" title="Plastic recycling">Recycling of polymers</a> has become very important as the production and use of plastic is continuously rising. Global <a href="Plastic_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic waste">plastic waste</a> may almost triple by 2060 if this continues.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plastics can be recycled by various means like mechanical recycling, chemical recycling, etc. Among the recyclable polymers, polyester <a href="PET_bottle_recycling" title="PET bottle recycling">PET</a> is one of the most recycled plastics.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ester bond present in polyesters is susceptible to <a href="Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">hydrolysis</a> (acidic or basic conditions), <a href="Methanolysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Methanolysis">methanolysis</a> and glycolysis which makes this class of polymers suitable for chemical recycling.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Enzymatic/biological recycling of PET can be carried out using different enzymes like <a href="PETase" title="PETase">PETase</a>, <a href="Cutinase" title="Cutinase">cutinase</a>, <a href="Esterase" title="Esterase">esterase</a>, <a href="Lipase" title="Lipase">lipase</a>, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> PETase has been also reported for enzymatic degradation of other synthetic polyesters (PBT, PHT, Akestra™, etc.) which contains similar aromatic ester bond as that of PET.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="Epoxy" title="Epoxy">Epoxy</a></li>

<li><a href="Glycerine_phthalate" title="Glycerine phthalate">Glycerine phthalate</a></li>

<li><a href="Microfiber" title="Microfiber">Microfiber</a></li>

<li><a href="Oligoester" title="Oligoester">Oligoester</a></li>

<li><a href="Polyamide" title="Polyamide">Polyamide</a></li>

<li><a href="Rayon" title="Rayon">Rayon</a></li>

<li><a href="Viscose" class="mw-redirect" title="Viscose">Viscose</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><i>Textiles</i>, by Sara Kadolph and Anna Langford. 8th Edition, 1998.</li>

<li>Spinning Machines <a class="external free external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_(textiles)">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_(textiles)</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ma301178k">Lipase catalyzed polyesterification: Enzyme-Catalyzed Polymerization of End-Functionalized Polymers in a Microreactor</a></li></ul>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Plastics171" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Plastics171" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Plastic" title="Plastic">Plastics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical <br>types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Acrylonitrile_butadiene_styrene" title="Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene">Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-linked_polyethylene" title="Cross-linked polyethylene">Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX, XLPE)</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethylene-vinyl_acetate" title="Ethylene-vinyl acetate">Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)</a></li>

<li><a href="Poly(methyl_methacrylate)" title="Poly(methyl methacrylate)">Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)</a></li>

<li><a href="Poly(ethyl_methacrylate)" title="Poly(ethyl methacrylate)">Poly(ethyl methacrylate) (PEMA)</a></li>

<li><a href="Polyacrylic_acid" title="Polyacrylic acid">Polyacrylic acid (PAA)</a></li>

<li><a href="Polyamide" title="Polyamide">Polyamide (PA)</a></li>

<li><a href="Polybutylene" title="Polybutylene">Polybutylene (PB)</a></li>

<li><a href="Polybutylene_terephthalate" title="Polybutylene terephthalate">Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT)</a></li>

<li><a href="Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">Polycarbonate (PC)</a></li>

<li><a href="PEEK" class="mw-redirect" title="PEEK">Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)</a></li>

<li><a href="Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">Polyethylene (PE)</a></li>

<li><a href="Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">Polyethylene terephthalate (PET, PETE)</a></li>

<li><a href="Polyimide" title="Polyimide">Polyimide (PI)</a></li>

<li><a href="Polylactic_acid" title="Polylactic acid">Polylactic acid (PLA)</a></li>

<li><a href="Polyoxymethylene" title="Polyoxymethylene">Polyoxymethylene (POM)</a></li>

<li><a href="Polyphenyl_ether" title="Polyphenyl ether">Polyphenyl ether (PPE)</a></li>

<li><a href="Poly(p-phenylene_oxide)" title="Poly(p-phenylene oxide)">Poly(p-phenylene oxide) (PPO)</a></li>

<li><a href="Polypropylene" title="Polypropylene">Polypropylene (PP)</a></li>

<li><a href="Polystyrene" title="Polystyrene">Polystyrene (PS)</a></li>

<li><a href="Polysulfone" title="Polysulfone">Polysulfone (PES)</a></li>

<li><a href="Polytetrafluoroethylene" title="Polytetrafluoroethylene">Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)</a></li>

<li><a href="Polyurethane" title="Polyurethane">Polyurethane (PU)</a></li>

<li><a href="Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)</a></li>

<li><a href="Polyvinylidene_chloride" title="Polyvinylidene chloride">Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC)</a></li>

<li><a href="Styrene_maleic_anhydride" title="Styrene maleic anhydride">Styrene maleic anhydride (SMA)</a></li>

<li><a href="Styrene-acrylonitrile_resin" title="Styrene-acrylonitrile resin">Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN)</a></li>

<li><a href="Tritan_copolyester" title="Tritan copolyester">Tritan copolyester</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span><br><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mechanical <br>types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Thermoplastic" title="Thermoplastic">Thermoplastic</a></li>

<li><a href="Thermosetting_polymer" title="Thermosetting polymer">Thermosetting polymer</a></li>

<li><a href="Fibre-reinforced_plastic" title="Fibre-reinforced plastic">Fibre-reinforced plastic</a></li>

<li><a href="Corrugated_plastic" title="Corrugated plastic">Corrugated plastic</a></li>

<li><a href="Polymeric_foam" title="Polymeric foam">Polymeric foam</a></li>

<li><a href="High-performance_plastics" title="High-performance plastics">High-performance plastics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Additives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Plastic#Additives" title="Plastic">Polymer additive</a></li>

<li><a href="Plastic_colorant" title="Plastic colorant">Colorants</a></li>

<li><a href="Plasticizer" title="Plasticizer">Plasticizer</a></li>

<li><a href="Polymer_stabilizers" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymer stabilizers">Polymer stabilizers</a></li>

<li><a href="Biodegradable_additives" title="Biodegradable additives">Biodegradable additives</a></li>

<li><a href="Filler_(materials)" title="Filler (materials)">Filler (materials)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plastics <br>processing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Injection_moulding" title="Injection moulding">Injection moulding</a></li>

<li><a href="Plastic_extrusion" title="Plastic extrusion">Plastic extrusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Blow_molding" title="Blow molding">Blow molding</a></li>

<li><a href="Film_blowing_machine" title="Film blowing machine">Film blowing</a></li>

<li><a href="Thermoforming" title="Thermoforming">Thermoforming</a></li>

<li><a href="Compression_molding" title="Compression molding">Compression molding</a></li>

<li><a href="Calendering_(textiles)" title="Calendering (textiles)">Calendering</a></li>

<li><a href="Transfer_molding" title="Transfer molding">Transfer molding</a></li>

<li><a href="Lamination" title="Lamination">Laminating</a></li>

<li><a href="Fiberglass_molding" title="Fiberglass molding">Fiberglass molding</a></li>

<li><a href="Pultrusion" title="Pultrusion">Pultrusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Plastic_welding" title="Plastic welding">Plastic welding</a></li>

<li><a href="Filament_winding" title="Filament winding">Filament winding</a></li>

<li><a href="Solvent_bonding" title="Solvent bonding">Solvent bonding</a></li>

<li><a href="Vacuum_forming" title="Vacuum forming">Vacuum forming</a></li>

<li><a href="Rotational_molding" title="Rotational molding">Rotational molding</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Plastics_industry" title="Plastics industry">Plastics industry</a> segments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Commodity_plastics" title="Commodity plastics">Commodity plastics</a></li>

<li><a href="Plastics_in_the_construction_industry" title="Plastics in the construction industry">Construction</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_plastic" title="Engineering plastic">Engineering plastics</a></li>

<li><a href="Geosynthetics" title="Geosynthetics">Geosynthetics</a></li>

<li><a href="High-performance_plastics" title="High-performance plastics">High-performance plastics</a></li>

<li><a href="Nurdle_(bead)" title="Nurdle (bead)">Nurdle</a></li>

<li>Category:Plastics applications</li>

<li><a href="Plasticulture" title="Plasticulture">Plasticulture</a> (Agriculture)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific goods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Blister_pack" title="Blister pack">Blister pack</a></li>

<li><a href="Monobloc_(chair)" title="Monobloc (chair)">Chairs</a></li>

<li><a href="Plastic_film" title="Plastic film">Packaging film</a></li>

<li><a href="Plastic_bottle" title="Plastic bottle">Bottles</a></li>

<li><a href="Plastic_cutlery" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic cutlery">Cutlery</a></li>

<li><a href="Plastic_shopping_bag" title="Plastic shopping bag">Shopping bags</a></li>

<li><a href="Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food containers</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Environment <br>and health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Health_issues_of_plastics_and_polyhalogenated_compounds_(PHCs)228" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Health_issues_of_plastics_and_polyhalogenated_compounds_(PHCs)228" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Health issues of <a href="Plastic" title="Plastic">plastics</a> and <a href="Polyhalogenated_compound" title="Polyhalogenated compound">polyhalogenated compounds</a> (PHCs)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Plasticizer" title="Plasticizer">Plasticizers</a>: <a href="Phthalate" class="mw-redirect" title="Phthalate">Phthalates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous plasticizers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Organophosphate" title="Organophosphate">Organophosphates</a></li>

<li><a href="Adipic_acid" title="Adipic acid">Adipates</a> (<a href="Bis(2-ethylhexyl)_adipate" title="Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate">DEHA</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Monomer" title="Monomer">Monomers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bisphenol_A" title="Bisphenol A">Bisphenol A</a> (BPA, in <a href="Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">Polycarbonates</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Vinyl_chloride" title="Vinyl chloride">Vinyl chloride</a> (in <a href="Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">PVC</a>)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous additives incl. PHCs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Polybrominated_diphenyl_ethers" title="Polybrominated diphenyl ethers">PBDEs</a></li>

<li><a href="Organotin" class="mw-redirect" title="Organotin">Organotins</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Perfluorooctanoic_acid" title="Perfluorooctanoic acid">Perfluorooctanoic acid</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Plastic#Toxicity" title="Plastic">Health issues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Teratogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Teratogen">Teratogen</a></li>

<li><a href="Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">Carcinogen</a></li>

<li><a href="Endocrine_disruptor" title="Endocrine disruptor">Endocrine disruptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Diabetes" title="Diabetes">Diabetes</a></li>

<li><a href="Obesity" title="Obesity">Obesity</a></li>

<li><a href="Polymer_fume_fever" title="Polymer fume fever">Polymer fume fever</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pollution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic pollution</a>

<ul><li><a href="Rubber_pollution" title="Rubber pollution">Rubber pollution</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch" title="Great Pacific Garbage Patch">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a></li>

<li><a href="Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li>

<li><a href="Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxins" title="Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins">Dioxins</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_environmental_health_hazards" class="mw-redirect" title="List of environmental health hazards">List of environmental health hazards</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="1986_California_Proposition_65" title="1986 California Proposition 65">California Proposition 65</a></li>

<li><a href="Registration%2C_Evaluation%2C_Authorisation_and_Restriction_of_Chemicals" title="Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals">European REACH regulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Kashinhou" title="Kashinhou">Japan Toxic Substances Law</a></li>

<li><a href="Toxic_Substances_Control_Act_of_1976" title="Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976">Toxic Substances Control Act</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Waste</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic pollution</a>

<ul><li><a href="Garbage_patch" title="Garbage patch">Garbage patch</a>

<ul><li><a href="Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch" title="Great Pacific Garbage Patch">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li>

<li><a href="Dioxins_and_dioxin-like_compounds" title="Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds">Dioxins</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_environmental_health_hazards" class="mw-redirect" title="List of environmental health hazards">List of environmental health hazards</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Plastic_recycling" title="Plastic recycling">Plastic recycling</a></li>

<li><a href="Biodegradable_plastic" title="Biodegradable plastic">Biodegradable plastic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><a href="Resin_identification_code" title="Resin identification code">Identification codes</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Fibers284" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e7dac1"><div id="Fibers284" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Fiber" title="Fiber">Fibers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e7dac1;width:1%"><a href="Natural_fiber" title="Natural fiber">Natural</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#ecdfc8;width:1%"><a href="Fiber_crop" title="Fiber crop">Plant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abac%C3%A1" title="Abacá">Abacá</a></li>

<li><a href="Bagasse" title="Bagasse">Bagasse</a></li>

<li><a href="Bamboo_textile" title="Bamboo textile">Bamboo</a></li>

<li><a href="Musa_basjoo" title="Musa basjoo">Bashō</a></li>

<li><a href="Cotton" title="Cotton">Cotton</a></li>

<li><a href="Fique" title="Fique">Fique</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Linen" title="Linen">Linen</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ceiba_pentandra" title="Ceiba pentandra">Kapok</a></li>

<li><a href="Kenaf" title="Kenaf">Kenaf</a></li>

<li><a href="Lotus_silk" title="Lotus silk">Lotus silk</a></li>

<li><a href="Raffia_palm" title="Raffia palm">Raffia</a></li>

<li><a href="Ramie" title="Ramie">Ramie</a></li>

<li><a href="Rattan" title="Rattan">Rattan</a></li>

<li><a href="Sisal" title="Sisal">Sisal</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#ecdfc8;width:1%"><a href="Animal_fiber" title="Animal fiber">Animal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alpaca_fiber" title="Alpaca fiber">Alpaca</a></li>

<li><a href="Angora_wool" title="Angora wool">Angora</a></li>

<li><a href="Byssus" title="Byssus">Byssus</a></li>

<li><a href="Camel_hair" title="Camel hair">Camel hair</a></li>

<li><a href="Cashmere_wool" title="Cashmere wool">Cashmere</a></li>

<li><a href="Catgut" title="Catgut">Catgut</a></li>

<li><a href="Chiengora" title="Chiengora">Chiengora</a></li>

<li><a href="Guanaco#Guanaco_fiber" title="Guanaco">Guanaco</a></li>

<li><a href="Llama#Fiber" title="Llama">Llama</a></li>

<li><a href="Mohair" title="Mohair">Mohair</a></li>

<li><a href="Pashmina_(material)" title="Pashmina (material)">Pashmina</a></li>

<li><a href="Qiviut" title="Qiviut">Qiviut</a></li>

<li><a href="Rabbit_hair" title="Rabbit hair">Rabbit</a></li>

<li><a href="Tendon" title="Tendon">Tendon</a></li>

<li><a href="Spider_silk" title="Spider silk">Spider silk</a></li>

<li><a href="Vicu%C3%B1a_wool" title="Vicuña wool">Vicuña</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#ecdfc8;width:1%"><a href="Mineral_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineral fiber">Mineral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Asbestos" title="Asbestos">Asbestos</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e7dac1;width:1%"><a href="Fiber#Chemical" title="Fiber">Synthetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#ecdfc8;width:1%"><a href="Regenerated_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Regenerated fiber">Regenerated</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Artificial_silk" title="Artificial silk">Artificial silk</a></li>

<li><a href="Milk_fiber" title="Milk fiber">Milk fiber</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#ecdfc8;width:1%"><a href="Semi-synthetic_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-synthetic fiber">Semi-synthetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cellulose_acetate" title="Cellulose acetate">Acetate</a></li>

<li><a href="Cellulose_diacetate" title="Cellulose diacetate">Diacetate</a></li>

<li><a href="Lyocell" title="Lyocell">Lyocell</a></li>

<li><a href="Modal_(textile)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modal (textile)">Modal</a></li>

<li><a href="Pi%C3%B1atex" title="Piñatex">Piñatex</a></li>

<li><a href="Rayon" title="Rayon">Rayon</a></li>

<li><a href="Cellulose_triacetate" title="Cellulose triacetate">Triacetate</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#ecdfc8;width:1%"><a href="Mineral_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineral fiber">Mineral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Glass_fiber" title="Glass fiber">Glass</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_fibers" title="Carbon fibers">Carbon</a></li>

<li><a href="Boron_fiber" title="Boron fiber">Boron</a></li>

<li><a href="Basalt_fiber" title="Basalt fiber">Basalt</a></li>

<li><a href="Metallic_fiber" title="Metallic fiber">Metallic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#ecdfc8;width:1%"><a href="Fiber#Polymer_fibers" title="Fiber">Polymer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Acrylic_fiber" title="Acrylic fiber">Acrylic</a></li>

<li><a href="Aramid" title="Aramid">Aramid</a>

<ul><li><a href="Twaron" title="Twaron">Twaron</a></li>

<li><a href="Kevlar" title="Kevlar">Kevlar</a></li>

<li><a href="Technora" title="Technora">Technora</a></li>

<li><a href="Nomex" title="Nomex">Nomex</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Microfiber" title="Microfiber">Microfiber</a></li>

<li><a href="Modacrylic" title="Modacrylic">Modacrylic</a></li>

<li><a href="Nylon" title="Nylon">Nylon</a></li>

<li><a href="Olefin_fiber" title="Olefin fiber">Olefin</a></li>

<li><a href="Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">Polyethylene</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ultra-high-molecular-weight_polyethylene" title="Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene">UHMWPE</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Spandex" title="Spandex">Spandex</a></li>

<li><a href="Vectran" title="Vectran">Vectran</a></li>

<li><a href="Vinylon" title="Vinylon">Vinylon</a></li>

<li><a href="Vinyon" title="Vinyon">Vinyon</a></li>

<li><a href="Zylon" title="Zylon">Zylon</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e7dac1"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Fibers" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Fibers">Commons</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Fabric391" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fabric391" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Textile" title="Textile">Fabric</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Woven_fabric" title="Woven fabric">Woven</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abac%C3%A1#Textiles" title="Abacá">Abacá cloth</a> (Medriñaque)</li>

<li><a href="Aertex" title="Aertex">Aertex</a></li>

<li><a href="Armazine" title="Armazine">Armazine</a></li>

<li><a href="Almer%C3%ADan_silk" class="mw-redirect" title="Almerían silk">Almerían silk</a></li>

<li><a href="Barathea" title="Barathea">Barathea</a></li>

<li><a href="Barkcloth" title="Barkcloth">Barkcloth</a></li>

<li><a href="Batiste" class="mw-redirect" title="Batiste">Batiste</a></li>

<li><a href="Bedford_cord" title="Bedford cord">Bedford cord</a></li>

<li><a href="Bengaline" title="Bengaline">Bengaline</a></li>

<li><a href="Beta_cloth" title="Beta cloth">Beta cloth</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombazine" title="Bombazine">Bombazine</a></li>

<li><a href="Brilliantine_(fabric)" title="Brilliantine (fabric)">Brilliantine</a></li>

<li><a href="Broadcloth" title="Broadcloth">Broadcloth</a></li>

<li><a href="Buckram" title="Buckram">Buckram</a></li>

<li><a href="Bunting_(textile)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bunting (textile)">Bunting</a></li>

<li><a href="Hessian_fabric" title="Hessian fabric">Burlap</a></li>

<li><a href="Byrd_Cloth" title="Byrd Cloth">Byrd Cloth</a></li>

<li><a href="C_change" title="C change">C change</a></li>

<li><a href="Calico" title="Calico">Calico</a></li>

<li><a href="Cambric" title="Cambric">Cambric</a></li>

<li><a href="Canvas" title="Canvas">Canvas</a></li>

<li><a href="Cambric" title="Cambric">Chambray</a></li>

<li><a href="Capilene" class="mw-redirect" title="Capilene">Capilene</a></li>

<li><a href="Cedar_bark_textile" title="Cedar bark textile">Cedar bark textile</a></li>

<li><a href="Challis_(fabric)" title="Challis (fabric)">Challis</a></li>

<li><a href="Char_cloth" title="Char cloth">Char cloth</a></li>

<li><a href="Charmeuse" title="Charmeuse">Charmeuse</a></li>

<li><a href="Charvet_(fabric)" title="Charvet (fabric)">Charvet</a></li>

<li><a href="Cheesecloth" title="Cheesecloth">Cheesecloth</a></li>

<li><a href="Chiffon_(fabric)" title="Chiffon (fabric)">Chiffon</a></li>

<li><a href="Chino_cloth" title="Chino cloth">Chino</a></li>

<li><a href="Chintz" title="Chintz">Chintz</a></li>

<li><a href="Cloqu%C3%A9" title="Cloqué">Cloqué</a></li>

<li><a href="Cloth_of_gold" title="Cloth of gold">Cloth of gold</a></li>

<li><a href="Cordura" title="Cordura">Cordura</a></li>

<li><a href="Corduroy" title="Corduroy">Corduroy</a></li>

<li><a href="Cotton_duck" title="Cotton duck">Cotton duck</a></li>

<li><a href="Coutil" title="Coutil">Coutil</a></li>

<li><a href="Cr%C3%AApe_(textile)" title="Crêpe (textile)">Crêpe</a></li>

<li><a href="Cretonne" title="Cretonne">Cretonne</a></li>

<li><a href="Denim" title="Denim">Denim</a></li>

<li><a href="Dimity" title="Dimity">Dimity</a></li>

<li><a href="Donegal_tweed" title="Donegal tweed">Donegal tweed</a></li>

<li><a href="Dornix" title="Dornix">Dornix</a></li>

<li><a href="Dowlas" title="Dowlas">Dowlas</a></li>

<li><a href="Drill_(fabric)" title="Drill (fabric)">Drill</a></li>

<li><a href="Drugget" title="Drugget">Drugget</a></li>

<li><a href="Eolienne" title="Eolienne">Eolienne</a></li>

<li><a href="Flannel" title="Flannel">Flannel</a></li>

<li><a href="Foulard" title="Foulard">Foulard</a></li>

<li><a href="Fustian" title="Fustian">Fustian</a></li>

<li><a href="Gabardine" title="Gabardine">Gabardine</a></li>

<li><a href="Gauze" title="Gauze">Gauze</a></li>

<li><a href="Gazar" title="Gazar">Gazar</a></li>

<li><a href="Georgette_(fabric)" title="Georgette (fabric)">Georgette</a></li>

<li><a href="Ghalamkar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghalamkar">Ghalamkar</a></li>

<li><a href="Gingham" title="Gingham">Gingham</a></li>

<li><a href="Grenadine_(cloth)" title="Grenadine (cloth)">Grenadine</a></li>

<li><a href="Grenfell_Cloth" class="mw-redirect" title="Grenfell Cloth">Grenfell Cloth</a></li>

<li><a href="Grosgrain" title="Grosgrain">Grosgrain</a></li>

<li><a href="Habutai" title="Habutai">Habutai</a></li>

<li><a href="Haircloth" title="Haircloth">Haircloth</a></li>

<li><a href="Harris_tweed" title="Harris tweed">Harris tweed</a></li>

<li><a href="Herringbone_(cloth)" title="Herringbone (cloth)">Herringbone</a></li>

<li><a href="Himroo" title="Himroo">Himroo</a></li>

<li><a href="Hodden" title="Hodden">Hodden</a></li>

<li><a href="Huckaback" title="Huckaback">Huckaback</a></li>

<li><a href="Irish_linen" title="Irish linen">Irish linen</a></li>

<li><a href="Jamdani" title="Jamdani">Jamdani</a></li>

<li><a href="Kerseymere" title="Kerseymere">Kerseymere</a></li>

<li><a href="Kh%C4%81d%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Khādī">Khādī</a></li>

<li><a href="Khaki_drill" title="Khaki drill">Khaki drill</a></li>

<li><a href="Kij%C5%8Dka-bash%C5%8Dfu" title="Kijōka-bashōfu">Kijōka-bashōfu</a></li>

<li><a href="Kente_cloth" title="Kente cloth">Kente cloth</a></li>

<li><a href="Linsey-woolsey" title="Linsey-woolsey">Linsey-woolsey</a></li>

<li><a href="Loden_cape" title="Loden cape">Loden</a></li>

<li><a href="Longcloth" title="Longcloth">Longcloth</a></li>

<li><a href="Mackinaw_cloth" title="Mackinaw cloth">Mackinaw</a></li>

<li><a href="Madapollam" title="Madapollam">Madapollam</a></li>

<li><a href="Madras_(cloth)" title="Madras (cloth)">Madras</a></li>

<li><a href="Moleskin" title="Moleskin">Moleskin</a></li>

<li><a href="Muslin" title="Muslin">Muslin</a></li>

<li><a href="Nainsook" title="Nainsook">Nainsook</a></li>

<li><a href="Nankeen" title="Nankeen">Nankeen</a></li>

<li><a href="Ninon" title="Ninon">Ninon</a></li>

<li><a href="Oilskin" title="Oilskin">Oilskin</a></li>

<li><a href="Organdy" title="Organdy">Organdy</a></li>

<li><a href="Organza" title="Organza">Organza</a></li>

<li><a href="Osnaburg" title="Osnaburg">Osnaburg</a></li>

<li><a href="Ottoman_(textile)" title="Ottoman (textile)">Ottoman</a></li>

<li><a href="Oxford_(cloth)" title="Oxford (cloth)">Oxford</a></li>

<li><a href="Paduasoy" title="Paduasoy">Paduasoy</a></li>

<li><a href="Percale" title="Percale">Percale</a></li>

<li><a href="Perpetuana" title="Perpetuana">Perpetuana</a></li>

<li><a href="Pongee" title="Pongee">Pongee</a></li>

<li><a href="Poplin" title="Poplin">Poplin</a></li>

<li><a href="Rakematiz" title="Rakematiz">Rakematiz</a></li>

<li><a href="Rayadillo" title="Rayadillo">Rayadillo</a></li>

<li><a href="Ripstop" title="Ripstop">Ripstop</a></li>

<li><a href="Russell_cord" title="Russell cord">Russell cord</a></li>

<li><a href="Saga_Nishiki" title="Saga Nishiki">Saga Nishiki</a></li>

<li><a href="Samite" title="Samite">Samite</a></li>

<li><a href="Sateen" title="Sateen">Sateen</a></li>

<li><a href="Satin" title="Satin">Satin</a></li>

<li><a href="Scarlet_(cloth)" title="Scarlet (cloth)">Scarlet</a></li>

<li><a href="Seerhand_muslin" title="Seerhand muslin">Seerhand muslin</a></li>

<li><a href="Seersucker" title="Seersucker">Seersucker</a></li>

<li><a href="Sendal" title="Sendal">Sendal</a></li>

<li><a href="Serge_(fabric)" title="Serge (fabric)">Serge</a></li>

<li><a href="Scrim_(material)" title="Scrim (material)">Scrim</a></li>

<li><a href="Stuff_(cloth)" title="Stuff (cloth)">Stuff</a></li>

<li><a href="Taffeta" title="Taffeta">Taffeta</a></li>

<li><a href="Taiwan_floral_fabric" title="Taiwan floral fabric">Taiwan floral fabric</a></li>

<li><a href="Tartan" title="Tartan">Tartan</a></li>

<li><a href="Ticking_(textile)" title="Ticking (textile)">Ticking</a></li>

<li><a href="Toile" title="Toile">Toile</a></li>

<li><a href="Tucuyo" title="Tucuyo">Tucuyo</a></li>

<li><a href="Tweed" title="Tweed">Tweed</a></li>

<li><a href="Twill" title="Twill">Twill</a></li>

<li><a href="Ultrasuede" title="Ultrasuede">Ultrasuede</a></li>

<li><a href="Vegetable_flannel" title="Vegetable flannel">Vegetable flannel</a></li>

<li><a href="Ventile" title="Ventile">Ventile</a></li>

<li><a href="Vinyl_coated_polyester" title="Vinyl coated polyester">Vinyl coated polyester</a></li>

<li><a href="Viyella" title="Viyella">Viyella</a></li>

<li><a href="Voile" title="Voile">Voile</a></li>

<li><a href="Wadmal" title="Wadmal">Wadmal</a></li>

<li><a href="Waffle_fabric" title="Waffle fabric">Waffle</a></li>

<li><a href="Wigan_(fabric)" title="Wigan (fabric)">Wigan</a></li>

<li><a href="Whipcord" title="Whipcord">Whipcord</a></li>

<li><a href="Zephyr_cloth" class="mw-redirect" title="Zephyr cloth">Zephyr</a></li>

<li><a href="Zorbeez" title="Zorbeez">Zorbeez</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Figured <br>woven</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Brocade" title="Brocade">Brocade</a></li>

<li><a href="Camlet" title="Camlet">Camlet</a></li>

<li><a href="Damask" title="Damask">Damask</a></li>

<li><a href="Lampas" title="Lampas">Lampas</a></li>

<li><a href="Songket" title="Songket">Songket</a></li>

<li><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="Rinzu" title="Rinzu">Rinzu</a></i></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Pile_(textile)" title="Pile (textile)">Pile woven</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Baize" title="Baize">Baize</a></li>

<li><a href="Chenille_fabric" title="Chenille fabric">Chenille</a></li>

<li><a href="Corduroy" title="Corduroy">Corduroy</a></li>

<li><a href="Crimplene" title="Crimplene">Crimplene</a></li>

<li><a href="Fustian" title="Fustian">Fustian</a></li>

<li><a href="Mockado" title="Mockado">Mockado</a></li>

<li><a href="Moquette" title="Moquette">Moquette</a></li>

<li><a href="Plush" title="Plush">Plush</a></li>

<li><a href="Polar_fleece" title="Polar fleece">Polar fleece</a></li>

<li><a href="Terrycloth" title="Terrycloth">Terrycloth</a></li>

<li><a href="Velours_du_Kasa%C3%AF" title="Velours du Kasaï">Velours du Kasaï</a></li>

<li><a href="Velvet" title="Velvet">Velvet</a></li>

<li><a href="Velveteen" title="Velveteen">Velveteen</a></li>

<li><a href="Zibeline" title="Zibeline">Zibeline</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Nonwoven_fabric" title="Nonwoven fabric">Nonwoven</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Cedar_bark_textile" title="Cedar bark textile">Cedar bark</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Knitted_fabric" title="Knitted fabric">Knitted</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Boiled_wool" title="Boiled wool">Boiled wool</a></li>

<li><a href="Coolmax" title="Coolmax">Coolmax</a></li>

<li><a href="Knitting_machine" title="Knitting machine">Machine knitting</a></li>

<li><a href="Milliskin" title="Milliskin">Milliskin</a></li>

<li><a href="Jersey_(fabric)" title="Jersey (fabric)">Jersey</a></li>

<li><a href="Velour" title="Velour">Velour</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Net_(textile)" title="Net (textile)">Netted</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bobbinet" title="Bobbinet">Bobbinet</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_fibers" title="Carbon fibers">Carbon fibers</a></li>

<li><a href="Needlerun_net" title="Needlerun net">Needlerun net</a></li>

<li><a href="Ninon" title="Ninon">Ninon</a></li>

<li><a href="Tulle_netting" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulle netting">Tulle</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Technical_textile" title="Technical textile">Technical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ballistic_nylon" title="Ballistic nylon">Ballistic nylon</a></li>

<li><a href="Conductive_textile" title="Conductive textile">Conductive textile</a></li>

<li><a href="Darlexx" title="Darlexx">Darlexx</a></li>

<li><a href="E-textiles" title="E-textiles">E-textiles</a></li>

<li><a href="Gannex" title="Gannex">Gannex</a></li>

<li><a href="Lenticular_fabric" title="Lenticular fabric">Lenticular fabric</a></li>

<li><a href="Silnylon" title="Silnylon">Silnylon</a></li>

<li><a href="Spandex" title="Spandex">Spandex</a></li>

<li><a href="SympaTex" class="mw-redirect" title="SympaTex">SympaTex</a></li>

<li><a href="Windstopper" title="Windstopper">Windstopper</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Patterns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Argyle_(pattern)" title="Argyle (pattern)">Argyle</a></li>

<li><a href="Bizarre_silk" title="Bizarre silk">Bizarre silk</a></li>

<li><a href="Check_(pattern)" title="Check (pattern)">Check</a></li>

<li><a href="Warp_printing" title="Warp printing">Chiné</a></li>

<li><a href="Glen_plaid" title="Glen plaid">Glen plaid</a></li>

<li><a href="Herringbone_(cloth)" title="Herringbone (cloth)">Herringbone</a></li>

<li><a href="Houndstooth" title="Houndstooth">Houndstooth</a></li>

<li><a href="Kelsch_d'Alsace" title="Kelsch d'Alsace">Kelsch</a></li>

<li><a href="Paisley_(design)" title="Paisley (design)">Paisley</a></li>

<li><a href="Pinstripes" title="Pinstripes">Pinstripes</a></li>

<li><a href="Polka_dot" title="Polka dot">Polka dot</a></li>

<li><a href="Shweshwe" title="Shweshwe">Shweshwe</a></li>

<li><a href="Tartan" title="Tartan">Tartan or plaid</a>

<ul><li><a href="Tattersall_(cloth)" title="Tattersall (cloth)">Tattersall</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Fiber" title="Fiber">Textile fibers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abac%C3%A1" title="Abacá">Abacá</a> (Manila hemp)</li>

<li><a href="Acrylic_fiber" title="Acrylic fiber">Acrylic</a></li>

<li><a href="Alpaca_fiber" title="Alpaca fiber">Alpaca</a></li>

<li><a href="Angora_wool" title="Angora wool">Angora</a></li>

<li><a href="Musa_basjoo" title="Musa basjoo">Bashō</a></li>

<li><a href="Cashmere_wool" title="Cashmere wool">Cashmere</a></li>

<li><a href="Cotton" title="Cotton">Cotton</a></li>

<li><a href="Eisengarn" title="Eisengarn">Eisengarn</a></li>

<li><a href="Kevlar" title="Kevlar">Kevlar</a></li>

<li><a href="Linen" title="Linen">Linen</a></li>

<li><a href="Mohair" title="Mohair">Mohair</a></li>

<li><a href="Nylon" title="Nylon">Nylon</a></li>

<li><a href="Microfiber" title="Microfiber">Microfiber</a></li>

<li><a href="Olefin_fiber" title="Olefin fiber">Olefin</a></li>

<li><a href="Pashmina" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashmina">Pashmina</a></li>

<li><a href="Ramie" title="Ramie">Ramie</a></li>

<li><a href="Rayon" title="Rayon">Rayon</a></li>

<li><a href="Sisal" title="Sisal">Sisal</a></li>

<li><a href="Spandex" title="Spandex">Spandex</a></li>

<li><a href="Spider_silk" title="Spider silk">Spider silk</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="Finishing_(textiles)" title="Finishing (textiles)">Finishing</a> and<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><a href="Textile_printing" title="Textile printing">printing</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Androsia" title="Androsia">Androsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Batik" title="Batik">Batik</a></li>

<li><a href="Beetling" title="Beetling">Beetling</a></li>

<li><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="Bingata" title="Bingata">Bingata</a></i></span></li>

<li><a href="B%C3%B2g%C3%B2lanfini" title="Bògòlanfini">Bògòlanfini</a></li>

<li><a href="Devor%C3%A9" title="Devoré">Burnout</a></li>

<li><a href="Calendering_(textiles)" title="Calendering (textiles)">Calendering</a></li>

<li><a href="Decatising" title="Decatising">Decatising</a></li>

<li><a href="Devor%C3%A9" title="Devoré">Devoré</a></li>

<li><a href="Finishing_(textiles)" title="Finishing (textiles)">Finishing</a></li>

<li><a href="Fulling" title="Fulling">Fulling</a></li>

<li><a href="Heatsetting" title="Heatsetting">Heatsetting</a></li>

<li><a href="Indienne" title="Indienne">Indienne</a></li>

<li><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="Kasuri" title="Kasuri">Kasuri</a></i></span></li>

<li><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="Katazome" title="Katazome">Katazome</a></i></span></li>

<li><a href="Mercerised_cotton" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercerised cotton">Mercerization</a></li>

<li><a href="Moire_(fabric)" title="Moire (fabric)">Moire</a></li>

<li><a href="Parchmentising" title="Parchmentising">Parchmentising</a></li>

<li><a href="Rogan_printing" class="mw-redirect" title="Rogan printing">Rogan printing</a></li>

<li><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="R%C5%8Dketsuzome" title="Rōketsuzome">Rōketsuzome</a></i></span></li>

<li><a href="Roller_printing_on_textiles" title="Roller printing on textiles">Roller printing</a></li>

<li><a href="Sanforization" title="Sanforization">Sanforization</a></li>

<li><a href="Tenterhook" title="Tenterhook">Tenterhook</a></li>

<li><a href="Textile_printing" title="Textile printing">Textile printing</a></li>

<li><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="Tsutsugaki" title="Tsutsugaki">Tsutsugaki</a></i></span></li>

<li><a href="Warp_printing" title="Warp printing">Warp printing</a></li>

<li><a href="Waxed_cotton" title="Waxed cotton">Waxed cotton</a></li>

<li><a href="Woodblock_printing_on_textiles" title="Woodblock printing on textiles">Woodblock printing</a></li>

<li><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="Y%C5%ABzen" title="Yūzen">Yūzen</a></i></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fabric mills</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Carlo_Barbera" title="Carlo Barbera">Carlo Barbera</a></li>

<li><a href="Lanificio_Fratelli_Cerruti" title="Lanificio Fratelli Cerruti">Cerruti</a></li>

<li><a href="Dormeuil" title="Dormeuil">Dormeuil</a></li>

<li><a href="E._Thomas" title="E. Thomas">E. Thomas</a></li>

<li><a href="Holland_%26_Sherry" title="Holland & Sherry">Holland & Sherry</a></li>

<li><a href="Larusmiani" title="Larusmiani">Larusmiani</a></li>

<li><a href="Loro_Piana" title="Loro Piana">Loro Piana</a></li>

<li><a href="Fratelli_Piacenza" title="Fratelli Piacenza"> Piacenza</a></li>

<li><a href="Scabal" title="Scabal">Scabal</a></li>

<li><a href="Vitale_Barberis_Canonico" title="Vitale Barberis Canonico">Vitale Barberis Canonico</a></li>

<li><a href="Zegna" title="Zegna">Zegna</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manufacturing<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>industry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Textile_design" title="Textile design">Design</a></li>

<li><a href="Textile_manufacturing" title="Textile manufacturing">Manufacturing</a></li>

<li><a href="Textile_performance" title="Textile performance">Performance</a></li>

<li><a href="Textile_preservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Textile preservation">Preservation</a></li>

<li><a href="Textile_recycling" title="Textile recycling">Recycling</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_textile_manufacturing" title="Glossary of textile manufacturing">Terminology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dyeing" title="Dyeing">Dyeing</a></li>

<li><a href="Fiber" title="Fiber">Fiber</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_clothing_and_textiles" title="History of clothing and textiles">History of textiles</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_silk" title="History of silk">History of silk</a></li>

<li><a href="Knitting" title="Knitting">Knitting</a></li>

<li><a href="Fulling_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Fulling mill">Pandy</a></li>

<li><a href="Shrinkage_(fabric)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrinkage (fabric)">Shrinkage</a></li>

<li><a href="Textile_sample" title="Textile sample">Swatches and strike-offs</a></li>

<li><a href="Synthetic_fabric" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic fabric">Synthetic fabric</a></li>

<li><a href="Weaving" title="Weaving">Weaving</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Clothing_materials_and_parts136" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Clothing_materials_and_parts136" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Clothing materials and parts</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Garment structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Armscye" title="Armscye">Armscye</a></li>

<li><a href="Collar_(clothing)" title="Collar (clothing)">Collar</a>

<ul><li><a href="Clerical_collar" title="Clerical collar">Clerical collar</a></li>

<li><a href="Collar_stays" class="mw-redirect" title="Collar stays">Collar stays</a></li>

<li><a href="Detachable_collar" title="Detachable collar">Detachable collar</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Facing_(sewing)" title="Facing (sewing)">Facing</a></li>

<li><a href="Lapel" title="Lapel">Lapel</a></li>

<li><a href="Lining_(sewing)" title="Lining (sewing)">Lining</a></li>

<li><a href="Placket" title="Placket">Placket</a></li>

<li><a href="Pleat" title="Pleat">Pleat</a></li>

<li><a href="Pocket" title="Pocket">Pocket</a></li>

<li><a href="Revers" title="Revers">Revers</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruffle_(sewing)" title="Ruffle (sewing)">Ruffle</a></li>

<li><a href="Shoulder_pads_(fashion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shoulder pads (fashion)">Shoulder pad</a></li>

<li><a href="Shoulder_strap" class="mw-redirect" title="Shoulder strap">Strap</a></li>

<li><a href="Sleeve" title="Sleeve">Sleeve</a></li>

<li><a href="Train_(clothing)" title="Train (clothing)">Train</a></li>

<li><a href="Waistband" title="Waistband">Waistband</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Textile" title="Textile">Textiles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Natural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cotton" title="Cotton">Cotton</a></li>

<li><a href="Linen" title="Linen">Linen</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Synthetic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Artificial_leather" title="Artificial leather">Artificial leather</a></li>

<li><a href="Elastomer" title="Elastomer">Elastic</a></li>

<li><a href="Nylon" title="Nylon">Nylon</a></li>

<li><a href="Rayon" title="Rayon">Rayon</a></li>

<li><a href="Spandex" title="Spandex">Spandex</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Hide_(skin)" title="Hide (skin)">Animal hides</a> / <a href="Leather" title="Leather">leather</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Kangaroo_leather" title="Kangaroo leather">Kangaroo</a></li>

<li><a href="Ostrich_leather" title="Ostrich leather">Ostrich</a></li>

<li><a href="Sheepskin" title="Sheepskin">Sheep</a></li>

<li><a href="Snakeskin" title="Snakeskin">Snake</a></li>

<li><a href="Shagreen" title="Shagreen">Stingray</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Fastener" title="Fastener">Fasteners</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Back_closure" title="Back closure">Back closure</a></li>

<li><a href="Buckle" title="Buckle">Buckle</a></li>

<li><a href="Button" title="Button">Button</a>

<ul><li><a href="Buttonhole" title="Buttonhole">Buttonhole</a></li>

<li><a href="Shank_(sewing)" title="Shank (sewing)">Shank</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Velcro" class="mw-redirect" title="Velcro">Velcro</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Zipper" title="Zipper">Zipper</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Seam_(sewing)" title="Seam (sewing)">Seams</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Neckline" title="Neckline">Neckline</a></li>

<li><a href="Bustline" title="Bustline">Bustline</a></li>

<li><a href="Waistline_(clothing)" title="Waistline (clothing)">Waistline</a></li>

<li><a href="Hemline" title="Hemline">Hemline</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

</p>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188245#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2087" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188245#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2087" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Polyester"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4175168-1">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Polyesters"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85104622">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Polyesters"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119445392">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Polyesters"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119445392">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00569148">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="polyestery"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph606751&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Poliésteres"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX541538">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007563261505171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/a1eff344-6368-426d-b58d-0d4a932052a4">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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